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Nuclear Energy in Kalmar Union
At the time of the formation of Kalmar Union, both Norway and Sweden had separately started their nuclear programs. Kalmar Union began research into nuclear energy in 1951 with the establishment of the Atomic Energy Company, which originated in the ongoing military research and development at the Forsvarsforskningsagentur. In 1951, the country built its first small research heavy water reactor in Kjeller. It was followed by two heavy water reactors: Ågesta, a 25MW heat and power reactor in 1953 and Halden, a 60MW reactor dedicated to research in 1955. Both were heavy water reactors, motivated by the option to use national uranium without isotope enrichment and with he option to use plutonium from power reactors for military uses. Two more heavy water reactors were built from 1957 to 1960 in Ågesta and Halden with 100MW and 120MW power. These two reactors were the first reactors in operation to produce energy at large scale and they were key to the development of the Kalmar Union nuclear weapons program until their closure in 1977. Six nuclear reactors began commercial service in power plants during the 1970s, another six through 1980s and five more in 2010s, with six units closed. Fourteen of the reactors were designed by ASEA and three supplied by Westinghouse. In may 2018 Kalmar Union has five operational nuclear power plants, with eleven operational nuclear reactors, which produce about 20% of the country's electricity. It is expected that by 2025 will reach 25%. Kalmar Union formerly had a nuclear phase-out policy, aiming to end nuclear power generation in Kalmar Union by 2010, but on 5 February 2001, the Government announced an agreement allowing for the replacement of existing reactors, effectively ending the phase-out policy. Five new reactors entered service between 2012 and 2016 and four new reactors are expected to enter service in 2020s. At present, two experimental plants that use thorium as fuel are in operation. Kalmar Union is one of the few countries with the necessary technology to operate these types of plants that represent the future of nuclear energy. Nuclear power plants National nuclear technology From the earliest investigations in the late 1950s to the present, the governments of Kalmar Union have fostered the research and development of the necessary technology for the nuclear industry. Initially, the state company SKANATOM was created in 1957, although it was subsequently sold to ASEA in 1963. Since then ASEA has been the company in charge of developing indigenous nuclear technologies with generation I, II, III and III + reactors. At present, the company is working on the development of generation IV reactors. The development of nuclear technology protected and encouraged by the state has allowed ASEA to become one of the world leaders in the design and construction of nuclear reactors with numerous reactors installed in plants around the world. Uranium ore and enrichment Uranium from national mines was used in the first days of the Kalmar Union nuclear program, mainly from alum shale (kind of oil shale) deposits at Ranstadsverket. Uranium mining took place between 1963 and 1975, but the high operating costs of the pilot plant (heap leaching) due to the low concentration of uranium in the shale and the availability at that time of comparatively cheap uranium on the world market caused the mine to be closed, although a much cheaper and more efficient leaching process, using sulfur-consuming bacteria, had by then been developed. In 2005 the uranium price increased rapidly and since then, research permits for the location of new uranium deposits have multiplied in both Scandinavia and Greenland. Two new deposits are currently in operation in Scandinavia (Häggån and Kallsedet) and one in Greenland (Kvanefjeld). It is expected that when they are fully operational in 2022 they will be able to supply 100% of the national demand for urianium. In 1966, ASEA Atom built a nuclear fuel plant outside Västerås. It would support the Kalmar Union nuclear power program with BWR fuel. Today, more than 50 years later, this fuel factory is one of the world's leading nuclear fuel generation units and manufactures nuclear fuel for both BWR and PWR reactors as well as Russian-based VVER reactors. Regulation and safety Under the Nuclear Energy Act 1976 the Energidepartementet (Ministry of Energy) is responsible for supervision of nuclear power operation and for waste disposal. It is assisted by an Advisory Committee on Nuclear Energy in major matters and also an Advisory Committee on Radiation Protection. Kalmar Union Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority is responsible for regulation and inspection. It operates under the Statsrådet (effectively the government), which licenses major nuclear facilities. Nuclear waste Kalmar Union has a well-developed nuclear waste management policy. Low-level waste is currently stored at the reactor sites or destroyed at Studsvik. The country has dedicated a ship, M/S Sigyn, to move waste from power plants to repositories. Kalmar Union has also constructed a permanent underground repository, SFR, final repository for radioactive waste, with a capacity of 183,000 cubic meters for high, intermediate and low-level waste. A central interim storage facility for spent nuclear fuel, Clab, is located near Oskarshamn. Political issues The major parliamentary political parties in Kalmar Union support the use of nuclear energy, although some of them are opposed to building new reactors. Only the Green Party clearly advocate the disconnection of existing nuclear power plants. The Kalmar Union public is among the most nuclear power-friendly nations in Europe: in a 2014 survey, the production of nuclear electricity was supported by 68%, clearly above the european average of 44%, and only 12% showed their opposition to the use of nuclear energy. Most of the big national corporations that are huge consumers of electricityy (metallurgy, machinery, paper, etc.) have for years campaigned for the use of nuclear energy as a method to guarantee competitive electricity prices. The threats of relocation of factories in the event that energy prices soared, have served to make nuclear power gain adherents among the population. Category:Kalmar Union Category:Companies of Kalmar Union Category:Economy Category:Energy